Linus Pauling – The man who birthed the vitamin C craze
Without a shadow of a doubt, Linus Pauling was one of the most brilliant scientists and activists of the 20th century. He is notable for being one of the few individuals to receive two Nobel Prizes and still is the only person to receive two unshared Nobel Prizes: the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954 for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances and the Nobel Peace Prize in 1962 for his activism against nuclear weapons testing. Yet, Pauling's legacy is a complex one, marked by significant contributions to science and controversial stances in the field of health and nutrition, because he played a significant role in popularizing the concept of antioxidants and their potential health benefits. His influence in this area is mainly linked to his advocacy of high doses of vitamin C.
The first documented symptoms of vitamin C deficiency, which leads to scurvy, can be traced back to ancient times. The Ebers Papyrus, dating around 1550 BC, is one of the earliest records that accounts for a disease likely to be scurvy. It suggested the treatment of this disease with onions, which are known to contain small amounts of vitamin C. Hippocrates, the ancient Greek physician often referred to as the 'father' of Western medicine, also described symptoms associated with scurvy around 400 BC. He noted characteristics such as foul breath, loose gums, and nosebleeds.
Scurvy gained notoriety during the 1700s, particularly among sailors and explorers deprived of fresh produce during long sea voyages. British naval surgeon James Lind made a significant discovery in 1747 when he found that consuming citrus fruits could alleviate the symptoms of scurvy. This discovery led to the implementation of citrus rations in naval diets, helping to eradicate scurvy from the British navy. British sailors became known as ‘limeys’, which refers to the practice of supplying rations of lime juice to them to prevent scurvy.
The connection between scurvy and vitamin C was further clarified in the 1920s when the Hungarian biochemist Albert Szent-Györgyi discovered the molecular structure of vitamin C and named it hexuronic acid. The British chemist Walter Haworth determined the molecular structure of hexuronic acid and renamed it ascorbic acid in 1932. The following year, Haworth led a team of scientists who were able to make ascorbic acid synthetically.
However, vitamin C was just another vitamin people knew they should get enough of until Pauling published his book "Vitamin C and the Common Cold” in 1970. He was a strong proponent of using large doses of vitamin C to prevent and treat a wide range of conditions, including the common cold, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases. While the scientific community did not fully support his theories on mega-dosing vitamin C, his advocacy certainly raised public awareness and interest in antioxidants. This contributed to a surge in research, dietary supplements, and health claims related to antioxidants, creating the so-called "antioxidant craze". The term refers to the widespread belief that antioxidants, like vitamin C, can counteract the damaging effects of free radicals in the body. Free radicals are unstable molecules that can cause cellular damage. This damage, known as oxidative stress, is linked to various chronic diseases. Antioxidants like vitamins C and E, selenium, and carotenoids can neutralize free radicals, potentially reducing oxidative stress and its associated risks. Some studies suggest that antioxidants may play a role in preventing diseases like heart disease, cancer, and Alzheimer's disease, although the evidence is not conclusive. Antioxidants can protect the skin from damage caused by the sun and aging and contribute to a healthy immune system, though the relationship is complex and not fully understood.
The first documented symptoms of vitamin C deficiency, which leads to scurvy, can be traced back to ancient times. The Ebers Papyrus, dating around 1550 BC, is one of the earliest records that accounts for a disease likely to be scurvy. It suggested the treatment of this disease with onions, which are known to contain small amounts of vitamin C. Hippocrates, the ancient Greek physician often referred to as the 'father' of Western medicine, also described symptoms associated with scurvy around 400 BC. He noted characteristics such as foul breath, loose gums, and nosebleeds.
Scurvy gained notoriety during the 1700s, particularly among sailors and explorers deprived of fresh produce during long sea voyages. British naval surgeon James Lind made a significant discovery in 1747 when he found that consuming citrus fruits could alleviate the symptoms of scurvy. This discovery led to the implementation of citrus rations in naval diets, helping to eradicate scurvy from the British navy. British sailors became known as ‘limeys’, which refers to the practice of supplying rations of lime juice to them to prevent scurvy.
The connection between scurvy and vitamin C was further clarified in the 1920s when the Hungarian biochemist Albert Szent-Györgyi discovered the molecular structure of vitamin C and named it hexuronic acid. The British chemist Walter Haworth determined the molecular structure of hexuronic acid and renamed it ascorbic acid in 1932. The following year, Haworth led a team of scientists who were able to make ascorbic acid synthetically.
However, vitamin C was just another vitamin people knew they should get enough of until Pauling published his book "Vitamin C and the Common Cold” in 1970. He was a strong proponent of using large doses of vitamin C to prevent and treat a wide range of conditions, including the common cold, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases. While the scientific community did not fully support his theories on mega-dosing vitamin C, his advocacy certainly raised public awareness and interest in antioxidants. This contributed to a surge in research, dietary supplements, and health claims related to antioxidants, creating the so-called "antioxidant craze". The term refers to the widespread belief that antioxidants, like vitamin C, can counteract the damaging effects of free radicals in the body. Free radicals are unstable molecules that can cause cellular damage. This damage, known as oxidative stress, is linked to various chronic diseases. Antioxidants like vitamins C and E, selenium, and carotenoids can neutralize free radicals, potentially reducing oxidative stress and its associated risks. Some studies suggest that antioxidants may play a role in preventing diseases like heart disease, cancer, and Alzheimer's disease, although the evidence is not conclusive. Antioxidants can protect the skin from damage caused by the sun and aging and contribute to a healthy immune system, though the relationship is complex and not fully understood.
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What we do know for sure about the role of vitamin C in the human body is:
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Taking high doses of antioxidant supplements can be harmful. For example, high doses of vitamin E may increase the risk of prostate cancer and hemorrhagic strokes, while high doses of beta-carotene may increase the risk of lung cancer in smokers. Antioxidants can sometimes interfere with cancer treatments, as they may protect cancer cells from the oxidative damage these treatments target. Plus, excessive intake of antioxidants could disrupt the redox balance in the body, potentially leading to oxidative stress rather than preventing it.
However, as a water-soluble vitamin, vitamin C is not stored in our body tissues or organs but secreted via the urine. Because of that, vitamin C isn’t toxic and doesn’t cause any serious adverse effects, even at high doses. Excessive intake of vitamin C, typically from supplements, can still lead to side effects such as gastrointestinal discomfort and kidney stones though.
Vitamin C is abundant in many fruits and vegetables, including oranges, strawberries, kiwi fruit, bell peppers, broccoli, kale, and spinach. There is no need to take vitamin C supplements, as a balanced diet rich in fruits and vegetables is the best way to ensure adequate vitamin C intake.
Going back to Linus Pauling, we can say that his legacy is complex, marked by significant contributions to science and controversial stances in health and nutrition. We should also mention that contributions to health and nutrition extended beyond his advocacy for vitamin C. His work in these areas included:
However, as a water-soluble vitamin, vitamin C is not stored in our body tissues or organs but secreted via the urine. Because of that, vitamin C isn’t toxic and doesn’t cause any serious adverse effects, even at high doses. Excessive intake of vitamin C, typically from supplements, can still lead to side effects such as gastrointestinal discomfort and kidney stones though.
Vitamin C is abundant in many fruits and vegetables, including oranges, strawberries, kiwi fruit, bell peppers, broccoli, kale, and spinach. There is no need to take vitamin C supplements, as a balanced diet rich in fruits and vegetables is the best way to ensure adequate vitamin C intake.
Going back to Linus Pauling, we can say that his legacy is complex, marked by significant contributions to science and controversial stances in health and nutrition. We should also mention that contributions to health and nutrition extended beyond his advocacy for vitamin C. His work in these areas included:
- Pauling coined the term "orthomolecular medicine" to describe the practice of preventing and treating disease by providing the body with optimal amounts of substances natural to the body. This concept was an extension of his interest in the molecular basis of health and disease.
- He was interested in the biochemical underpinnings of mental health conditions. Pauling suggested that imbalances or deficits in the molecular environment within the brain could contribute to mental illness and that these could potentially be corrected through nutritional supplements.
- While not directly related to nutrition, his studies on protein structures had significant implications for understanding biological processes and diseases.
- Pauling conducted pivotal research on the molecular basis of sickle cell anemia, a breakthrough that marked the beginning of the field of molecular disease research.
- His research in genetics and molecular biology provided a foundation for understanding various health conditions at the molecular level, which indirectly impacted nutritional science and health.
- Throughout his career, Pauling was involved in public health advocacy. He was particularly vocal about the dangers of nuclear weapons and radiation, which included the health impacts of fallout.
